CRSV: Xinhai Revolution
This case note documents the occurrence of sexual violence in violent conflict. It contains explicit mentions of different forms of sexual assault. Reader discretion is advised.
Background of the Conflict
The 1911 Revolution, called the Xinhai or Hsinhai Revolution officially ended China’s last imperial dynasty, namely the Qing dynasty. This revolution culminated in the establishment of the Republic of China. Following a decade of agitations and revolts, the revolution succeeded with the collapse of the Chinese monarchy, ending over two millennia of imperial rule. While attempts at reform were in place for long, by the Qing Dynasty, but these reforms were opposed by conservatives in the Qing court. The flashpoint arrived with the Wuchang Uprising, an armed rebellion among members of the New Army. This sparked off more revolts across the country, with revolutionaries across China renouncing the Qing Dynasty.
On January 1, 1912, the National Assembly declared the establishment of the Republic of China. Following this, a brief civil war between the north and south ended in a compromise, where Yuan Shikai was appointed the President of the new national government. However, following his appointment, within a few months, he restored the monarchy, meeting with strong opposition and his abdication and reinstatement of the Republic.
The Revolution was named Xinhai because it happened in 1911, the year of the Xinhai. During the revolution, nearly 20000 Manchus were killed. The Hui Muslim community was divided – some supported the revolutionaries, some supported the Qing Dynasty. A lot of violence that unfolded was the result of this schism.
Prevalence of Sexual Violence
Reports suggest that sexual violence and race were very much part of the violence that unfolded during the revolution (Borst-Smith 1912; Crossley, 1991). The wealthy Han Chinese enslaved Manchu girls (Rhoads 2000), whereas the poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women as wives (Rhoads 2000). Hui Muslims also seized young Manchu girls and raised them as Muslims (Fitzgerald, & Kotker, 1969). As part of the revolution, plunder and destruction of property was common, and in the course of these events, many women and girls were raped and subjected to various forms of sexual violence (Rhoads 2000).
Basis of the Use of Sexual Violence
The patterns of violence recorded reflect that sexual violence and rape were carried out to intimidate populations for their political alignment and to terrorize and punish individuals for taking the side they did. A large number of incidents were also opportunistic, ensuing as a result of a state of impunity. Women and girls were also subject to humiliation through sexual slavery and abduction.
References
Borst-Smith, E.F. (1912). Caught in the Chinese Revolution: a record of risks and rescue. London: T. Fisher Unwin.
Crossley, P. K. (1991). Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World. Princeton University Press.
Backhouse, E., Otway, J., & Bland, P. (1914). Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking. Houghton Mifflin.
Fitzgerald, C. P., & Kotker, N. (1969). The Horizon history of China. American Heritage.
Rhoads, E. J. M. (2000). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press.
